The African Queen


 * The African Queen
 * by Jonathan I. Edelstein
 * 31 May 2002

East Africa ... The invention of movable type had a profound effect throughout the world, but in East Africa it was an event of religious significance. The upheavals of the late fourth century had resulted in Reshemite syncretism spreading to many of the coastal Merchant Kingdoms and influencing the established Mandaean and Omani communities, making the East Africans the People of the Book in truth. In a land where the written word is holy, a printing press is nothing short of a generator of sanctity, and in a religion where the order and correspondence of words are significant, movable type enabled holy men to rearrange large numbers of words with great speed. In modern terms, word processing was a holy act in most East African religions, and presses with movable type were more efficient than any processor yet invented.

The effects of this were several. On the one hand, the religious importance of movable type made it virtually impossible to centralize the production or dissemination of books. By the early 420s, nearly every place of worship north of Kilwa and south of Axum had its own printing press, and any attempt to confiscate the presses or restrict the act of printing would have been viewed as deeply sacrilegious. Since the books produced on these presses inevitably included works of philosophy and theological speculation, fifth-century Africa possessed literally thousands of centers of thought, and every holy man was potentially in a position to preach to the world.

On the other hand, the civil and religious hierarchies placed definite bounds on the thoughts that could be expressed in printed form. As the printed word took a more prominent place than ever in East African religious life, burning books and breaking presses became the ultimate gesture of rejection. An author whose works offended the powers-that-be might find his presses smashed by rioters or his books put to the torch by the authorities and could count himself lucky if he escaped a similar fate.

Still, given that the dominant religion combined doctrines of several faiths and gave worshipers great freedom to choose among them, the permissible range of expression was wide. Especially in the polyglot cities of the Sawahil coast, where no single faith was in the majority and official tolerance was greater, the fifth century saw a flowering of philosophy and poetry. Much of this was unremarkable -- one effect of the spread of printing in a literate society was a wider market for inferior works -- but other works of this period are still regarded as classics today.

East African poetry of the fifth and sixth centuries is perhaps best known for its celebration of life. The physical had always been a prominent theme in this region; asceticism was not an African trait, and religious and secular festivals had always included music, dancing, feasting and drinking. As the great plagues receded in the early fifth century, however, the tendency to celebrate the sensual pleasures increased. This was due in part to the feeling of liberation that grew as each plague-free year passed, but also to the widespread feeling that it was necessary to live in the moment lest the plagues return. Many East African literary works of this era were explicitly erotic -- the Tale of a Hundred Nights in particular is considered a classic of the genre -- and drinking was also a popular theme. African poets, however, did not neglect the more spiritual aspects of love, and classic poetic cycles such as the Facets of the Laylak include love stories of great tenderness...

... Many historians argue that the full potential of the printing press was first realized by Queen Kanyange of Reshem. Although she is known to us as a queen, Kanyange's importance was in fact due to her status as Queen Mother. The wives of Reshemite kings were of little consequence, but the mother of the reigning omukama was powerful both as a force behind the throne and as a political and religious figure in her own right. FN1

Kanyange's reign as Queen Mother began relatively early in her life. From the fragmentary records that speak of her childhood, we learn that she was born into a provincial noble family and was given in marriage to the omukama at the age of fourteen, sometime around the year 440 [1212 CE]. He was a relatively weak king and she a strong woman, and she rose to become his principal wife, sealing her position when her eldest son was made his heir in 446 [1218 CE]. Upon the king's death in 449 [1221 CE] -- and the stories of his poisoning may not all be lies put about by Kanyange's enemies -- she became Queen Mother and regent to her minor son.

Like many ambitious monarchs, Kanyange sought power beyond her own realm. The method she chose to conquer foreign lands, however, was not the sword but a book. No memoir or diary of hers has come down to us, so we cannot be sure of the source of her inspiration, but she clearly recognized the power of the press as a tool for influencing secular political opinion.

Kanyange's book, The League of Kings, was published in 455 [1227 CE]. Although it was couched in religious terms, with references to Mandaean concepts of universal justice and law, it was actually a work of political propaganda. The book advocated a federation encompassing all the kingdoms of East Africa, and extolled the virtues that would arise from such a union -- a unified system of roads and postal service, a single law for traveling merchants, easier pilgrimages to the source of the living water. Membership would be open to all states that paid annual dues; the kings of member states would retain their thrones and would be members of the council that decided the League's affairs. Presiding over the council would be the Great Mother -- and there was little doubt in anyone's mind, least of all Kanyange's, who that Mother would be.

The rulers of the Merchant Kingdoms at first resisted the idea, wary of losing their independence and fearful that the annual membership dues were merely a concealed form of tribute to Reshem. By publishing a book, however, Kanyange had taken the argument directly to their people. There was no way that the subject of federation could be confined to secret negotiations or clandestine emissaries; almost at once, it was a subject of discussion in every tavern and guildhall. The merchant classes, whose power was once again growing as the sea trade recovered, as were provincial nobles who saw increased opportunity for influence and patronage. In the decade from 455 to 465, many East African kings learned that their power was absolute only in theory, and were forced to cede part of their sovereignty to a council of their equals. Ultimately, the holdouts would be persuaded with the sword, and the League of Kings would reach as far south as Sofala, include the Cattle Kingdoms to the west, and encompass even some of the Christian principalities of what was once southern Axum. For Reshem, a century and a half of relative isolation was at an end, to be replaced by centuries of political and religious primacy...

... Kanyange's reign lasted almost seventy years. In fact, as Great Mother of the League, she outlasted the death of her son; even after her favorite daughter-in-law assumed the role of Queen Mother of Reshem, she held power as the titular ruler of the East African federation. She understood, perhaps better than any of her constituent monarchs, that her power had limits, and she did not interfere in the domestic affairs of any member kingdom. She actually implemented the reforms she had described in her book, however, creating a unified system of courts and spending membership dues lavishly on roads and postal couriers.

One unforeseen result of this development was that the East African kingdoms, which had traditionally been oriented toward the sea trade, began trading increasingly with each other. Reshemite steel, once more common in Egypt than in Zanzibar, became commonplace throughout the coast, and Reshem once again became an important way station for land caravans. The trade routes to Egypt, which had been virtually closed during the plague years, grew steadily, tying East Africa to the Mediterranean world as well as the Indian Ocean rim. All this came at a price in the form of taxation, but standards of living rose enough so that the higher taxes were not intolerable. By the time of Kanyange's death in 518 [1290 CE] at the age of 92, the Sawahil coast was as rich as it had ever been, and the volume of commerce was beginning to surpass the level that had existed before the plagues...

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